Selasa, 20 November 2012

Audio Lingual Method(ALM)

A. Background

As a reaction to Reading Method, The Audio Lingual Method (The Aural-oral Approach) appeared for the need of teaching a foreign language, especially the spoken one in a short time during World War 2 (Freeman, 1985). It was famous at the same time with the popularity of Verbal Behavior, which was developed by B.F. Skinner. This method was related to the linguists 'view such as Bloom field and Fries which emphasized the structuralism. They believed that learning a language was making patterns into automatic habits. One way to form their habits was by using drills. The first application of ALM was made in the Armed Services Training Program Language Courses.

The method is based on the idea that the student acquires a foreign language more easily if it is presented in spoken form first (Brooks, 1984).

ALM aims at developing listening and speaking skills first, as the foundation on which to build the skills of reading and writing.


B. Principles


  1. Items must be presented in spoken form before the written form.
  2. The need for practicing the language patterns must be fulfilled gradually in cumulative graded steps.
  3. Contrastive analysis must be made to find similarities and differences as the basis of teaching preparation.
  4. Translation must not be used.
  5. Care must be taken in giving pronunciation drills and pattern practices.
  6. The learners mus attempt to make responses in situations, which stimulate real-life communication situations.
  7. The bases of ALM are as the following:
Brooks (1964) claims the following bases of ALM:

  • Language is speech, not writing.
  • A language is a set of habits.
  • Teach the language, not about the language.
  • A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks he ought to say.
  • Language are different.


C. Approach


  • Theory of Language.

The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism is derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s, known as structural linguistics which views language as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning.

The term 'structural' refers to these characteristics:

  1. Elements in a language are thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed way.
  2. Language samples can be exhaustively described at any structural level of description.
  3. Linguistic levels are thought of as system within systems.
  4. An important tenet of structural linguistics is that the primary medium of language is oral.
  • Theory of Learning

According to the behaviorists, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learners the behavior as the verbal behavior, the stimulus as what is thought, the response as the laerner's action, and the reinforcement as the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher.


D. Designs

Audiolingualist demanded a complete reorientation of the foreign language curriculum. They advocated a return to speech base instruction with the primary objectives of oral proficiency and the study of grammar.


  • Objectives


Brook (1964) distinguishes two objectives of an audiolingualism program:

  1. Short - range objectives include training listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols and ability to produce these symbols in writing.
  2. Long - range objectives must be language as the native speakers use it.
  • Syllabus


The starting point of ALM is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the keys of phonology, morphology and syntax of the language. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

  • Types of learning and teaching activities

Dialogues and drills from the basic of the ALM classroom practices. Specific grammatical patterns in the dialogues become the focus of drills and practices. The use of drills and pattern practices is a distinctive feature of ALM.


  • Learning roles

A learner plays a creative role by responding to stimuli and has little control over the content, peace, or style of learning.


  • Teacher roles

The teacher's role is central and active. He must keep the learners attentive by varying drills and task and by choosing relevant situations.

  • Role of instructional materials.

Instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. The teacher will have access to a teacher's book tahat contains the structured sequence of lessons: dialogues, drills and other practices. Language laboratory is essential.


E. Usual Classroom Techniques

The process of teaching involves an extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is immediate and accurate speech. As much as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction. Classes of ten are optimal.

According to Brook (1964: 142), the procedures in using ALM are:

  1. The modeling of learning by the teacher.
  2. The subordination of the mother tongue to the L2.
  3. The training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
  4. The learning of structure through patterns practices.
  5. The gradual substitution of graphic symbols.
  6. The summarizing of the main principles of structure.
  7. The shortening of time span between a performance and the pronunciation of its rightness or wrongness.
  8. The minimizing of vocabulary until common structures have been learned.
  9. The study of vocabulary only in context.
  10. The sustained practice in the use of language only in the molecular  form of speakers hearer-situation.
  11. The practice in translation only as a literary exercise at advanced level.



F. Contrastive Analysis (CA)


  • Background

Exponents of ALM claims that a contrastive analysis (CA) between the L1 and the L2 is needed  for the basic of the preparation of teaching materials and test.

  • Assumptions

Sridhar (1980) has the following assumptions of the Contrastive Analysis:

  1. The major cause of problems and errors in foreign language learning is interference from L1.
  2. The learning difficulties are due to the differences between L1 and L2.
  3. The greater differences will cause more serious problems.
  4. The results of the comparisons between L1 and L2 are needed for the prediction of difficulties.
  5. The students have to learn the results of contrastive analysis.
  • Analyses of Contrasting L1 and L2
a. The Phonology, morphology, and syntax of both L1 and L2 are analyzed by using the mechanical procedures of descriptive linguistics.
b. The results of the two analyses are two sets of linguistic inventors: each of which consists of:

  1. A list of phonemes, allophones, and rules of distribution, and supra-segmental features and intonation.
  2. A list of word classes, affixes, and morphological rules.
  3. A list of the basic sentence patterns.
  • The two sets of inventory are compared or contrasted.
  • The result of the comparison will be a list of similarities and a list of differences.
  • From the differences, trouble spots can be predicted.



G. Error Analysis (EA)


  • History
Greater differences of L1 and L2 do not necessarily cause more serious problems. The source of problems and errors can be mislearning, misunderstanding and poor grading of materials.

Some language teachers have found that foreign students from many native language backgrounds have many problems in common. So, instead of using contrastive analysis, it is more realistic to analyze the errors made by the students. From such analyses, patterns of errors can be established and the knowledge about it can be used to solve the students problems.

  • Principles
In error analysis, Sridhar (1980) claims that the following problems should be focused:

  1. Overgeneralization. A generalization is a process in which someone uses previously available strategies in new situations. Over generalization is a process of using generalization without being careful about exception.
  2. Performance Errors. The problem of performance happens if the student does not pronounce letter (s) clearly enough to hear.
  3. Markers of transitional competence. The teacher should not make harsh comments on student's errors because it will disappear in a few days. the student's transitional competence improves in time. It will encourage a teacher to change his attitude toward him/her.
  • Concluding Remarks
Errors made by students can be classified into:

  1. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by interference from L1.
  2. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by the problems inherent within the target language.
  3. Developmental errors, which are caused by the process of development in learning.
Overgeneralization and false hypothesis are indications of developmental errors.

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