Suggestopedia

A. Background

Suggestopedia is a method developed by Georgi Lozanov. It can be called suggestopedy or suggestopedagogy. The experiment of this method was held in Bulgaria (1975). The main reference of this method is a lozanov's book : Suggestology and Oulines of Suggestopedy, 1983.
The most conspicuous characteristics of suggestopedia are the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behavior of the teacher. Lozanov has borrowed and modified the techniques for altering states of consciousness and concentration and the use of rhythmic breathing. There are three functions of using music in the method:

• to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations.

• to bring about the increased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance.

• to use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order.

B. Approach

• Theory of Language

Lozanov does not articulate a theory of language. The emphasis on memorization of vocabulary pair suggests a view of language in which stess is put on Lexis and lexical translation.
The suggestopedic course direct the students to act of communication. Lozanov recommends home study of recordings of "whole meaningful text" that are, above all, interesting. The text should be light hearted stories with emotional content.

• Theory of Learning

Suggestopedia  derived from suggestology: a science concerned with the systematic study of the nonrational and/or nonconcious influences. The heart suggestopedia is suggestion, which involves loading the memory banks with desired and facilitating memories. Desuggestions, on the other hand, involves unloading the memory banks, or reserves, of unwanted or blocking memories.
The are some basic theoretical components through which desuggestion and suggestion operate:

1. Authority. People remember best and are most influenced by the information coming from an authority source.
2. Infantilization. Authority is also use to suggest a teacher student relation like that of parent to child.
3. Double-planednees. The learner learns not only from the effect of direct instruction, but also from the environment in which the instruction takes place.
4. Intonation, rhythm, and correct pseudo-passiveness. Varying the tone and the rhythm of presented materials helps both to avoid boredom and to dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to the linguistic materials.

Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical background, called Baroque. The rate of presentation of materials to be learned within the rhythmic pattern is keyed to the rhythm.

C. Designs

• Objective

Suggestopedia aims at delivering advanced conversational proficiency quickly. The main aim of teaching is not memorization, but the understanding and creative solution of problems. However, memorization of vocabulary pairs is an important goal of the suggestopedic method.

• Syllabus

A suggestopedia course lasts three months and consists of ten units of study. Classes are held four hours a day, six days a week during three months with 1200 words fcr the course. The central focus of each unit is a dialogue. The dialogue is graded by lexis and grammar. The study unit is organized around three days:

1. On day one (half a day), the teacher discusses the general content. The learners receive the printed dialogue with a native language translation. The dialogue is read a second and third time.
2. Days two end three are spent in primary and secondary elaboration of the text. Primary elaborations consist of imitation, question and answer, reading and so on of the dialogue and of working with the new vocabulary items. The secondary elaboration involves encouraging students to make new combinations and productions based on dialogues.

The whole course also has pattern of presentation and performance. On the firs day, a test is given to check the level of student's knowledge ond to divide students into groups. Then, the teacher briefs the students on the course and explains the attitude they should take toward it.
It the middle of the course, students are encouraged to practice the target language in a sitting provided. The last day of the course is devoted to a performance in which every student participles.

• Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

The type of activities is listening activities, which concern the text. The students first look at and discuss a new text with the teacher. In the second reading, students relax comfortably in reclining chairs and listen to the teacher reading the text. During the third reading, materials is acted out by instructor in a dramatic way over a background of the special musical form.

• Learner Roles

Students volunteer for a suggestopedia course, then, they are expected to be committed to the class and its activities. the mental state of the learner is critical to success: students are expected to tolerate and encourage their own infantilization.

• Teacher Roles

The primary role of the teacher is:
a. to create situations in which the learner is most suggestible.
b. to present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by the learner.
Lozanov lists several expected teacher behaviors:

1. Show absolute confidence in the method.
2. Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.
3. Organize properly and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process.
4. Maintain a solemn attitude toward the season.
5. Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers.
6. Stress global rather than analytical attitudes toward materials.
7. Maintain a modest enthusiasm.

• Roles of instructional Materials

Materials consist of direct support materials, primarily text and tape, and indirect support materials, including the appearance of the classroom, the furniture and the music. The textbook should have emotional force, literary quality and interesting characters.

Learning environment plays such a central role in suggestopedia that the important elements of the environment  need to be enumerated.

D. Usual Classroom Techniques

The four-hour language class has three distinct part.

• Oral review section.

• Presentation and discussion of new materials.

• Seance or concert session.

At the beginning of the concert session, all conversation stops for a minute  or two, and the teacher listens to the music coming from the tape recorder. Then, he begins to read or recite the new text. The students follow the text in their textbooks.

Between the first and the second part of the concert, there are several minutes of solemn silence.

Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read the text.

Now, the students close their textbooks and listen to the teacher's reading. They are not told to do homework except for reading it curiously before going to bed and before getting up.

E. Results

The method has  shown better results in the experimental classes than that in the usual classes. Word retention for German, French, English, and Italian is 93.16% , the average (Lozanov, 1982 : 209). Word retention after three years is still perfect  (Lozanov, 1982 : 125)

Lozanov's follower claimes that the results of the suggestopedia method are better than those of the anthers. Bordon and Schuster (in Bancfroft, 1978) claims that the results is 2,5. Suggestopedia  teacher in lowa claims that the results is 3 times (Bancroft, 1978 : 169). Strander and Schruder (in Bancroft, 1978 : 168) claimes that the result is 50 times better than that of the other method.

Audio Lingual Method(ALM)

A. Background

As a reaction to Reading Method, The Audio Lingual Method (The Aural-oral Approach) appeared for the need of teaching a foreign language, especially the spoken one in a short time during World War 2 (Freeman, 1985). It was famous at the same time with the popularity of Verbal Behavior, which was developed by B.F. Skinner. This method was related to the linguists 'view such as Bloom field and Fries which emphasized the structuralism. They believed that learning a language was making patterns into automatic habits. One way to form their habits was by using drills. The first application of ALM was made in the Armed Services Training Program Language Courses.

The method is based on the idea that the student acquires a foreign language more easily if it is presented in spoken form first (Brooks, 1984).

ALM aims at developing listening and speaking skills first, as the foundation on which to build the skills of reading and writing.

B. Principles

1. Items must be presented in spoken form before the written form.
2. The need for practicing the language patterns must be fulfilled gradually in cumulative graded steps.
3. Contrastive analysis must be made to find similarities and differences as the basis of teaching preparation.
4. Translation must not be used.
5. Care must be taken in giving pronunciation drills and pattern practices.
6. The learners mus attempt to make responses in situations, which stimulate real-life communication situations.
7. The bases of ALM are as the following:

Brooks (1964) claims the following bases of ALM:

• Language is speech, not writing.
• A language is a set of habits.
• Teach the language, not about the language.
• A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks he ought to say.
• Language are different.

C. Approach

• Theory of Language.

The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism is derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s, known as structural linguistics which views language as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning.

The term 'structural' refers to these characteristics:

1. Elements in a language are thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed way.
2. Language samples can be exhaustively described at any structural level of description.
3. Linguistic levels are thought of as system within systems.
4. An important tenet of structural linguistics is that the primary medium of language is oral.

• Theory of Learning

According to the behaviorists, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learners the behavior as the verbal behavior, the stimulus as what is thought, the response as the laerner's action, and the reinforcement as the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher.


D. Designs

Audiolingualist demanded a complete reorientation of the foreign language curriculum. They advocated a return to speech base instruction with the primary objectives of oral proficiency and the study of grammar.

• Objectives

Brook (1964) distinguishes two objectives of an audiolingualism program:

1. Short - range objectives include training listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols and ability to produce these symbols in writing.
2. Long - range objectives must be language as the native speakers use it.

• Syllabus

The starting point of ALM is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the keys of phonology, morphology and syntax of the language. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

• Types of learning and teaching activities

Dialogues and drills from the basic of the ALM classroom practices. Specific grammatical patterns in the dialogues become the focus of drills and practices. The use of drills and pattern practices is a distinctive feature of ALM.

• Learning roles

A learner plays a creative role by responding to stimuli and has little control over the content, peace, or style of learning.

• Teacher roles

The teacher's role is central and active. He must keep the learners attentive by varying drills and task and by choosing relevant situations.

• Role of instructional materials.

Instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. The teacher will have access to a teacher's book tahat contains the structured sequence of lessons: dialogues, drills and other practices. Language laboratory is essential.


E. Usual Classroom Techniques

The process of teaching involves an extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is immediate and accurate speech. As much as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction. Classes of ten are optimal.

According to Brook (1964: 142), the procedures in using ALM are:

1. The modeling of learning by the teacher.
2. The subordination of the mother tongue to the L2.
3. The training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
4. The learning of structure through patterns practices.
5. The gradual substitution of graphic symbols.
6. The summarizing of the main principles of structure.
7. The shortening of time span between a performance and the pronunciation of its rightness or wrongness.
8. The minimizing of vocabulary until common structures have been learned.
9. The study of vocabulary only in context.
10. The sustained practice in the use of language only in the molecular  form of speakers hearer-situation.
11. The practice in translation only as a literary exercise at advanced level.

F. Contrastive Analysis (CA)

• Background

Exponents of ALM claims that a contrastive analysis (CA) between the L1 and the L2 is needed  for the basic of the preparation of teaching materials and test.

• Assumptions

Sridhar (1980) has the following assumptions of the Contrastive Analysis:

1. The major cause of problems and errors in foreign language learning is interference from L1.
2. The learning difficulties are due to the differences between L1 and L2.
3. The greater differences will cause more serious problems.
4. The results of the comparisons between L1 and L2 are needed for the prediction of difficulties.
5. The students have to learn the results of contrastive analysis.

• Analyses of Contrasting L1 and L2

a. The Phonology, morphology, and syntax of both L1 and L2 are analyzed by using the mechanical procedures of descriptive linguistics.
b. The results of the two analyses are two sets of linguistic inventors: each of which consists of:

1. A list of phonemes, allophones, and rules of distribution, and supra-segmental features and intonation.
2. A list of word classes, affixes, and morphological rules.
3. A list of the basic sentence patterns.

• The two sets of inventory are compared or contrasted.
• The result of the comparison will be a list of similarities and a list of differences.
• From the differences, trouble spots can be predicted.

G. Error Analysis (EA)

• History

Greater differences of L1 and L2 do not necessarily cause more serious problems. The source of problems and errors can be mislearning, misunderstanding and poor grading of materials.

Some language teachers have found that foreign students from many native language backgrounds have many problems in common. So, instead of using contrastive analysis, it is more realistic to analyze the errors made by the students. From such analyses, patterns of errors can be established and the knowledge about it can be used to solve the students problems.

• Principles

In error analysis, Sridhar (1980) claims that the following problems should be focused:

1. Overgeneralization. A generalization is a process in which someone uses previously available strategies in new situations. Over generalization is a process of using generalization without being careful about exception.
2. Performance Errors. The problem of performance happens if the student does not pronounce letter (s) clearly enough to hear.
3. Markers of transitional competence. The teacher should not make harsh comments on student's errors because it will disappear in a few days. the student's transitional competence improves in time. It will encourage a teacher to change his attitude toward him/her.

• Concluding Remarks

Errors made by students can be classified into:

1. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by interference from L1.
2. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by the problems inherent within the target language.
3. Developmental errors, which are caused by the process of development in learning.

Overgeneralization and false hypothesis are indications of developmental errors.

Reading Method

A. Background

As a reaction to Direct Method after the publication in 1929 0f the Colemen report as part of Modern Foreign Language Study in the USA, Reading Method was developed because the majority of American students studied a foreign language for a period of two years only. The only objective, which could be attainable, was the development of reading ability.

The main aim of the Reading Method is the ability of reading. To abtain the aim, the students are trained to read L2 with the direct apprehension of meaning. They are trained in correct pronunciation, comprehension of uncomplicated spoken language, and the use of simple speech patterns. Writing is limited to exercises, which will help the students remember vocabulary and structures essentially geared to the needs of the readers.

B. Principles

1. Students are trained to read the foreign language with the direct apprehension of its meaning.
2. Correct pronunciation is emphasized.
3. Writing and grammar study are limited to the need of readers related to reading materials.
4. Students’ comprehension is tested by answering the questions on the content of the reading materials.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

1. Language study begins oral phase. The students are initiated into the sound system of the language.
2. After the introduction of reading, there continues to be on practice in association with the texts; this usually takes the for of reading aloud.
3. The main part of the course is then divided into intensive an extensive readings.

a. Intensive reading, under the teacher’s supervision, is more analytic and is the source of the materials for grammar study. The students are trained to infer the meaning of unknow words from the context.

b. For extensive reading, the students read many pages on connected discourse graded to their level of achievements.

Direct Method

A. Background

As a reaction to Grammar Translation Method, by the end of 19^th century, some advocates of active classroom methods had considerable influence on foreign language teachers. They believed that students learnt to understand a language by listening to it and that they learnt to speak by speaking it (Richards, 1986).

They tried to apply natural principles to language class by using intensive oral interaction in the target language. They believed  that the L2 could be taught without translation. According to them, a language could be best taught by using in the classroom. These oral and natural principles of language learning provided the foundation of Direct Method.

The ultimate aim of Direct Method is to develop the ability to think in the L2, whether conversing, reading, or writing. This new emphasis on the foreign language as the medium of instruction means that correct pronunciation becomes an important consideration.

C. Principles

Richards, (1986) stresses the following principles of Direct Method.

1. The learner must try to think directly in foreign language.
2. The foreign language must be constantly used without any allowance for the L1 use.
3. Classroom interaction is conducted exclusively in the L2.
4. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
5. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression.
6. Grammar is taught inductively.
7. New teaching points are introduced orally.
8. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects and pictures.
9. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
10. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

1. The learner is drilled extensively in listening, imitating, and speaking.
2. Grammar is taught inductively through examples and demonstration.
3. Emphasis is on aural-oral proficiency.
4. Normal conversation is really encouraged by asking questions.

Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

A. Background

Grammar Translation Method (1840s to 1940s) is clearly rooted in the formal Latin and Greek. This method is based on the idea that the quickest way to learn a foreign language through the understanding of grammar and the use of the native language in explaining it. It was previously called the classical method. It was in fact first known in the United States as the Prussian Method (Sears in Richards and Rogers, 1986: 3-5)

B. Aims

Rivers (1986) states the following aims of GTM:

1. Inculcating an understanding of grammar or the language.
2. Training the students to write the language accurately.
3. Providing the students with a wide literary vocabulary.
4. Training the students to extract the meaning by translation.

C. Principles

1. GTM is a way of studying a language. The L1 is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the L2.
2. Reading and writing are the major focus.
3. Vocabulary based on reading is taught through a bilingual language word list, dictionary study and memorization.
4. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the L2.
5. Grammar is taught deductively.
6. The L1 is the medium of instruction.

D. Usual Classrom Techniques

1. A lesson usually starts with a grammar point.
2. A piece of reading follows the purpose of illustrating the grammar point.
3. Next, exercises on the grammar are given.
4. Translation exercises come after that.

Preface

LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD is a text that provides the readers with some ideas of language teaching based on structural and communicative approaches. The write can be used as a guide by the teachers, instructors, and students in the faculty of language education in Indonesia.

The writer's goal is to enable the language teachers, language instructors, language students to become better informed about background, principles, and usual classroom techniques of language teaching methods.

Therefore, it is hoped that they can better arrive at their judgments and decisions for teaching techniques in their language classrooms.