Present Continuous Tense

Present Continuous tense dalam tenses bahasa inggris digunakan untuk tindakan yang sedang berlangsung sekarang, kejadian di waktu sedang berbicara dan tindakan yang berlangsung hanya untuk jangka waktu yang singkat. Present Continuous tense disebut juga dengan Present Progressive Tense

Penggunaan :
1. kejadian sekarang atau kegiatan sementara
contoh : Mr. Teguh is writing a new book
Mr. Teguh sedang menulis buku baru
2. Rencana di masa depan yang sudah pasti waktunya (pribadi)
I am going to Surabaya at 07.30 tomorrow
Saya akan pergi ke Surabaya jam 7.30 besok
3. kejadian terkait atas sesuatu atau seseorang disekitar waktu sekarang atau sedang berbicara
contoh : it is raining day
hari ini sedang hujan

Rumus Present Continuous Tense :
Positif (+):
subject + to be (am, is, are) + Verb – ing + object
Negatif (-) :
subject + to be + not + verb – ing + object
Tanya (?) :
to be + subject + verb – ing + object

Contoh Present Continuous Tense :
I am watching TV now (+)
Mr. Khanafi is not going to Jakarta (-)
Is Mrs. Annisa cooking in the kitchen ? (?)

Present Continuous tense membutuhkan :
- kata kerja “to be”
Tunggal,
I am (orang pertama)
You are (orang kedua)
He / she / it is (orang ketiga)
Jamak,
We are (orang pertama)
You are (orang kedua)
They are (orang ketiga)

- bentuk kata kerja “-ing”
Contoh :
Go + ing = going

- Keterangan waktu (adverb of time) yang sering digunakan dalam Present Continuous tense :
“NOW, RIGHT NOW, TOMORROW,etc”

Berikut latihan Present Continuous tense bahasa inggris. Jika mengalami kesulitan dalam arti kata gunakan kamus bahasa inggris online :

Latihan : terjemahkan kalimat ini kedalam bahasa inggris

1.Jack sedang tidur sekarang
2.Mary sedang mengerjakan tugas itu
3.Kami sedang menonton sebuah film di televisi
4.Mereka sedang bermain bola di halaman sekarang
5.Guru itu sedang menerangkan pelajaran itu.
6.Perusahaan itu sedang tumbuh dengan pesat sekarang.
7.Harga saham di bursa Efek Jakarta sedang naik sekarang
8.Pak Adi sedang mengajar bahasa Inggris di kampus sekarang
9.Polisi tersebut sedang mencari Ali sekarang.
10.Ana, Ani, dan Tom sedang berdiskusi sekarang.

Simple Present Tense

Materi pertama belajar grammar tenses bahasa inggris yaitu The Simple Present Tense. The Simple Present Tense adalah tenses yang puaaaling banyak digunakan, dan karena paling banyak maka pembahasannya juga akan lebih panjang.

Arti simple yaitu sederhana, sedangkan present adalah sekarang. Jadi bisa dikatakan bahwa Simple Present adalah tenses (pola kalimat) yang digunakan untuk menceritakan waktu sekarang dalam bentuk sederhana. Nama lain daripada Present adalah BENTUK 1.



Jadi kapanpun Anda melihat kata present dalam tenses apapun, bisa dipastikan bahwa dia menggunakan bentuk 1 – bentuk apa? ya bentuk verb, karena semua predicate itu wajib verb bukan, coba lihat posting awal grammar basic ini. Coba liat contoh-contoh kalimat dengan Simple Present dibawah ini

TOBE

I am a teacher
You are a teacher
We are teachers
They are teachers

He is a teacher
She is a teacher
It is my cat

Kalau Anda mengamati, maka kalimat diatas semuanya mengggunakan PREDICATE-1 atau predikat dalam bentuk 1, lihat saja tobe nya tidak lepas dari AM – IS – ARE. Contoh diatas adalah The simple present tense dalam bentuk nominal, karena semua kalimatnya menggunakan tobe-1

Apakah ada bentuk lainnya? Ada, yaitu The Simple Present Tense dalam bentuk VERBAL. Yaitu yang tidak memiliki tobe tapi memiliki verb. Nanti akan di terangkan. Untuk saat ini cukup kita simpulkan bahwa ada 2 (dua) jenis Simple Present yaitu

1. Nominal Simple Present
2. Verbal Simple Present

Untuk mengubah kalimat NOMINAL SIMPLE PRESENT kedalam bentuk negative (menyangkal) ataupun interrogative (bertanya) sangatlah mudah, amati

(+) You are a teacher
(- ) You are NOT a teacher
(? ) Are you a teacher?

Okey, silahkan Anda pahami dan tugas Anda sekarang adalah buatlah minimal 10 kalimat dengan menggunakan Nominal Simple Present ini.

Sekarang kita lanjutkan pada pola kalimat VERBAL SIMPLE PRESENT – yaitu simple present yang tidak menggunakan tobe, tetapi VERB1 sebagai predicate1 nya.. Amati contoh berikut
Subjective
Pronouns Example
I I work
You You work
We We work
They They work

He He works
She She works
It It works

Lihat, untuk awalan HE, SHE, IT .. verb nya menggunakan _s. Amati kembali contoh berikut

He runs every morning
She teaches English
John has an English books

Untuk kata kerja yang berakhiran bunyi DESIS (hissing sounds – x, ch, s, sh), kita menggunakan akhira _es. sehingga menjadi : teaches, mixes, washes, kisses .. dsb.

Exercise 1 :

read – John reads in the morning

1. read
2. sing
3. study
4. work
5. arrive
6. leave
7. practice
8. write
9. watch
10. finish
11. mix
12. pass
13. go
14. have
15. pray

Answer keys :

3. John studies
9. John watches
10 John finishes
11. John mixes
12. John passes
13. John goes
14. John have(s) -> John has
15. John prays

Amati kembali contoh kalimat ini :

3. (study) -> John studies
15. (pray) ->John prays

Untuk verb study – sebelum huruf Y adalah huruf konsonan D, itulah sebabnya menjadi STUDIES

Untuk verb pray – sebelum huruf Y adalah huruf vokal A, itulah sebabnya tetap PRAYS

Exercise 2 : Yang mana HAVE dan HAS

We -> We HAVE coffee in the morning
He -> He HAS coffee in the morning

1. he
2 John and Mary
3. they
4. Mr. Allen
5. she
6. Mary
7. the students
8. my brothers
9. my brother
10. You and I
11. he and she
12. Mary’s sister
13. Mary’s sisters
14. the teacher
15. people

Dalam belajar Grammar tidak boleh terputus. Tentunya Anda sudah tahu bahwa ada 3 kelompok Tenses yaitu Present Tense, Past Tense dan Future Tense setiap kelompok masing-masing memiliki 4 tenses. Dimana untuk setiap tenses nya ada yang memiliki tipe Verbal dan Nominal.

Sampai sini berhenti dulu ..jangan lanjut baca kecuali Anda yakin paham, hehe. Okey lanjut lagi, untuk Simple Present memiliki tipe Nominal atau yang predicate nya Tobe1 serta Verbal yang predicatenya Verb1. Masih paham dong, okey kita lanjut lagi. Untuk Nominal Simple Present, Anda sudah sangat memahami bagaimana menggunakan Tobe untuk setiap subjective pronounsnya, sedangkan untuk Verbal Simple Present – semua yang diawali dengan He, She, It maka verb nya mendapatkan tambahan +S sbb.

I write
You write
We write
They write

He writes
She writes
It writes

Begitupun pada kata kerja HAVE seperti He Have(s) mendapatkan tambahan (s) – sehingga kalimat tersebut menjadi HE HAS.
Perubahan Kalimat Negative dan Interrogative 
I
You DON’T (do not) GO
We
They

contoh : I don’t go, You don’t go, We don’t go, They don’t go. Selanjutnya amati sbb.
He
She DOESN’T (does not) GO
It

Amati, pada kalimat negative/interrogative yang berawalan He, She, It kata kerja nya (verb) nya kembali normal TIDAK MENGGUNAKAN +S lagi karena sudah ada DOES.

(+) You write
(-) You DON’T write
(?) DO you write?

(+) He writes
(-) He DOESN’T write
(?) Does he write?

Amati contoh lain

(+) You have a book
(-) You DON’T have a book
(?) DO you have a book?

(+) He has a book
(-) He DOESN’T have a book
(?) DOES he have a book?

Exercise 1 : Ubahlah kedalam kalimat (-) dan (?)

1. You have a car
2. My sister has a car
3. My sisters have a car
4. You and I learn English
5. John and Bill sing
6. The cat drinks
7. Joe has breakfast
8. Our brother teaches
9. Our brothers work
10. John’s sisters have a car

Answer Key : (jangan diliat dulu kunci jawaban ini)

My sister has a car
My sister doesn’t have a car
does my sister have a car?

My sisters have a car
My sisters don’t have a car
do my sisters have a car?

The cat drinks
The cat doesn’t drink
does the cat drink?

Joe has breakfast
Joe doesn’t have breakfast
does Joe have breakfast?

Our brother teaches
Our brother doesn’t teach
does our brother teach?

John’s sisters have a car
John’s sisters don’t have a car
do John’s sisters have a car?

Amati benar-benar, dan pastikan bahwa Anda memahami dan mampu mengatasi latihan Grammar ini dengan mudah. Yah begitulah resiko belajar Grammar, sing sabar …

Kali ini kita masuk pada fungsi atau penggunaan Tenses The Simple Present Tense sbb.

1. Menyatakan Fakta (expressing facts)

Mudahnya begini saja, coba sekarang Anda buat sedikit tulisan tentang Danau Toba, dimana Anda paparkan Danau Toba itu bagaimana dsb. Tulisan Anda disitu hampir 100% menggunakan tenses ini. Karena Anda memaparkan suatu fakta. Nah dibawah ini ada tulisan singkat

Belajaringgris.net adalah sebuah kursus bahasa Inggris online dengan sistim Full Conversation Tanpa Grammar. Ada 2 (dua) jenis website utama yaitu www.pakarbahasainggris.com dimana semua materi diberikan secara gratis, ada juga yang berbayar yaitu www.belajaringgris.net.

Nah kalau Anda amati tulisan diatas, semuanya menggunakan tenses Simple Present karena hanya menceritakan fakta yang tidak akan berubah dari masa lalu, ke masa sekarang, sampai masa yang akan datang. Tapi kalau artikel diatas saya lanjutkan seperti ini

Belajaringgris.net dalam waktu dekat akan meluncurkan kursus berbayar untuk Level II dimana yang dibentuk adalah kemampuan productive. Minggu lalu salah seorang peserta kursus berbayar dari Saudi Arab.

Lihat kata akan disini bukan lagi wilayah Simple Present karena membicarakan masa yang akan datang.Begitu pula pada bagian kalimat minggu lalu

2. Menyatakan kebiasaan (expressing habits)

Untuk yang ini Anda pasti akrab juga karena di sekolah sejak SMP sampai SMA fungsi Simple Present tidak lepas dari expressing habits, contoh mudah amati artikel ini

Banyak orang berkunjung setiap hari nya di kursus bahasa inggris belajaringgris.net Jika saya amati, mereka selalu membaca artikel ‘kamus bahasa inggris untuk hp’ sebelum membaca artikel lainnya. Itulah sebabnya saya selalu mengupdate materi belajaringgris.net setiap harinya. Dismping kategori utama yaitu MATERI KURSUS saya juga selalu mengupdate kategori GRAMMAR, dan kadang-kadang saya menulis di kategori ARTIKEL

Artikel singkat diatas menggunakan Simple Present, karena menyatakan kebiasaan. Karena itu biasanya menggunakan yang disebut dengan Adverbs of Frequency sbb.

Adverbs of Frequency
always selalu
usually biasanya
often seringkali
sometimes kadang2
seldom jarang
never tidak pernah
ever pernah

Apakah pasti? …Anda ingat baik-baik “Bicara BAHASA TIDAK ADA YANG PASTI”. Karena itu enjoy aja lah

3. Menyatakan masa yang akan datang

Lho?? ..emang iya, itulah sebabnya sudah saya katakan sejak dini bahwa Anda tidak perlu tegang dalam belajar bahasa inggris, karena memang tidak ada yang pasti. Amati dialog ini
Romli besok kita ke pantai yuk mpok
Juleha jam berapa bang?
Romli jam 7:00 pagi aje
Juleha waduh, besok aye pergi ke sekolah

Nah liat kalimat yang bercetak miring? kalimat itu menggunakan Simple Present Tense walaupun ada kata BESOK. Simple Present boleh digunakan untukmenceritakan peristiwa yang akan terjadi dengan syarat bahwa ‘peristiwa itu terjadi secara rutin’ dalam kasus Juleha contohnya, dia memang ke sekolah tiap jam 7:00 pagi, dari awal Februari, Maret sampai minggu kemaren, sampai hari Kamis kemarin juga jam 7:00 makanya boleh saja dia mengatakan BESOK ..tetap menggunakan Simple Present

4. Menyatakan masa lalu

Haduh?…inilah fakta bahwa Bahasa Inggris itu memang seenak wudel nya. Simple Present bisa digunakan untuk menceritakan masa yang akan datang, eh ..ga taunya juga bisa dipake untuk menceritakan masa lalu. Terus buat apa rumus? …ya ga tau?? ..siapa yang doyan rumus-rumusan?? yeee … 
Juleha bang, aye semalem kaga bisa tidur?
Romli kenape mpok?
Juleha aye lihat pocong tapi aneh banget
Romli aneh kenape mpok?
Juleha tuh pocong sih laki2, tapi pake gincu!!

Pada dialog diatas Juleha boleh saja menggunakan Simple Present. Tenses ini boleh digunakan untuk menceritakan peristiwa yang sudah berlalu dengan syarat untuk men DRAMATISIR

5. Menceritakan sesuatu yang sedang terjadi

Aduh?? aya-aya wae. Makanya dari awal sudah saya tekankan, buang jauh-jauh mitos yang membelenggu diri kita bahwa untuk menguasai Bahasa Inggris harus kuasai Grammar dulu. Walah, sampe botak ga bakal kelar yang namanya Grammar. Coba lihat neh seorang komentator tengah menceritakan peristiwa yang sedang terjadi

Zidane menggiring bola, bola lalu dioper kepada Zico. Zico menendang nya kembali kepada Zidane, sekarang zidane menendangnya kembali ke Zico, ga kelar-kelar neh penonton, paye ..

Nah komentator tersebut menggunakan Simple Present, karena peristiwanya berlangsung sangat cepat dan singkat.

Kalau sudah begini untuk apa lagi Anda merasa TAKUT SALAH saat berbicara, atau saat menulis. Hajar aja dulu, karena tujuan yang paling penting di awal perjalanan bukanlah kesempurnaan grammar, mana ada grammar yang sempurna? orang bule aja ga karuan grammar nya. Yang paling penting adalah MEMBENTUK SKILL berbahasa yaitu Listening, Speaking, Reading serta Writing.

Okey?? masih perlukah belajar grammar? ya masih untuk pembentukan writing skill di akhir perjalanan. Berakhirlah sudah Lesson 2 dari 30 lesson yang harus Anda kuasai dalam belajar Grammar

Pastikan Anda sudah mengerjakan latihan Simple Present tense bahasa inggris diatas. Jika mengalami kesulitan dalam arti kata gunakan kamus bahasa inggris online.

Tenses English

Di Indonesia di kenal 16 tenses bahasa inggris meski secara umum hanya 12 tenses. Tenses english secara sederhana dapat diartikan sebagai pola kalimat yang berubah menurut waktu merujuk pada masa lalu (Past), masa sekarang (Present) dan masa depan (Future). Dengan memahami tenses bahasa inggris kita bisa menyusun kalimat dengan lebih baik meski tidak harus selalu kita gunakan.

Berikut 16 tenses bahasa inggris yang akan kita pelajari dalam topik belajar grammar bahasa inggris kali ini :

1. Present Tenses
- simple present tense
- Present Continuous tense
- Present Perfect tense
- Present Perfect Continuous tense

2. Past Tenses
- Simple Past tense
- Past Continuous tense
- Past Perfect Tense
- Past Perfect Continuous tense

3. (Present) Future Tenses
- (Present) Simple Future tense
- (Present) Future Continuous tense
- (Present) Future Perfect tense
- (Present) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

4. Conditional / Past Future Tense
- (Simple) Conditional / Past Future tense
- Conditional / Past Future Continuous tense
- Conditional / Past Future Perfect tense
- Conditional / Past Future Perfect Continuous tense

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

A. Background

As a reaction to Audio Lingual Method and Cognitive Learning Theories and as response to Noam Chomsky's structural linguistic theory, the origin of Communicative Language Teaching began in the late 1960's. British applied linguists realized the need to focus language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mastery of structures.

A British linguists, Wilkins, (1972), proposes communicative functions of language that serves as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching. According to Wilkins, there are two types of meaning: 1) national categories, and 2) communicative function categories. These two types were revised into a book called "National Syllabuses)".

Anthropological linguists, e.g. Hymes 1972, and Firthean linguists, e.g. Holiday, (1973) view language first and foremost as system for communication.

B. Aims

Wilkins (1976) aims at:

1. Making communicative competence the goal of language teaching.
2. Devolping procedures for the teaching of the four skills.

Littlewood (1981) states that one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. He distinguishes two versions of communicative language teaching: the weak version which stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use the target language for communicative purpose, and the strong version which advances the claim that language is acquired through communication.

C. Approach

Theory of Language

Theory communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop communicative competence. Hymes (1968) describes the seven basic functions of language as follows:

• the instrumental function
• the regulatory function
• the interactional functional
• the personal function
• the heuristic function
• the imaginative function
• the representational functional

A more recent analysis of communicative competence is found in Savignon (1983), in which four dimensions of communicative competence are defined:

(1) Grammatical competence refers to linguistic competence.

(2) Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of social contexts.

(3) Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of an individual message.

(4) Strategic competence refers to the coping or survival strategies used to sustain communication.

Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language are:

(1) Language is a system for the expression of meaning

(2) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

(3) The structure of language reflect is functional and communicative uses.

(4) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Theory of Learning

Some elements of an underlying learning theory might be described as:

(1) The communication principles: activities that involve real communication promote learning.

(2) the task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.

(3) The meaningfulness principles: language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

These principles can be inferred from CLT practices.

D. Designs

• Objective

The objectives of communicative approach are categorized in the following levels:

(1) an integrative and content level (language as a means of expression);

(2) a linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)

(3) an effective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct (language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others);

(4) a level of individual learning needs (remedial learning);

(5) a general educational level of extralinguistic goals (language learning within the school curriculum).

• Syllabus

One of the first syllabus models is a National Syllabus (Wlikins, 1976) which specifies the semantic grammatical categories of communicative function that the learners need to express. The council of Europe expands it into Threshold Level English.

• Types of learning and Teaching Activities

The range of exercises types and and Activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited. Littlewood (1981) distinguishes two major activity types in Communicative Language Teaching:

(1) Functional Communication Activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations, skills, improvisations and debates.

• Learner Roles

The emphasis of CLT on the process of communication leads to different roles of learner. The role of learner as a negotiator emerges from the role of joint negotiators within the group. The learners are expected to interact primarily with each other and correction of errors may be absent or infrequent.

• Teacher Roles

The teacher has two main roles: to facilitate the communication process and to act as an independent participant within the learning teaching group. A third role is that of researcher and learner. Other roles assumed for the teacher are as a counselor and a group process manager.

• Roles of instructional Materials

Materials are used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. So, the materials have role of promoting communicative language use. There are three kinds of materials used in CLT: (a) Text based materials, such as text book; (b) task based materials, such as games, role plays, simulations; and (c) Realia, that is of "authentic", "from life" materials, such as signs, gesture, magazines, newspaper, graphics.

E. Features Of Communicative Language Teaching

Because communicative principles can be applied to the teaching of any skills at any levels, and because of the wide variety of classroom activities and exercises  types, description of typical classroom procedures based on CLT principles is not feasible.

Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features of ALM and Communicative Language Teaching as follows:

1. ALM attends to structure and form (ALM). Meaning is paramount (CLT).
2. Demands memorization of structure based dialogues (ALM). Dialogues center around communicative functions (CLT).
3. Language items are not contextualized (ALM). Contextualization is a basic premis 
4. Language learning is learning to learn structures, words, and sounds (ALM). Language learning is learning communicate (CLT).
5. Mastery of forms is sought (ALM). Effective communication is sought (CLT).
6. Drilling is central techniques (ALM). Drills occur peripherally (CLT).
7. Native speaker like pronunciation is sought (ALM). Comprehensible pronunciation is sought (CLT).
8. Grammatical explanation is needed (ALM). Any device which helps learners is accepted (CLT).
9. Communicative activities come after a long process of drills and exercises (ALM). Students attemp to communicate from the very begining (CLT).
10. L1 is forbidden (ALM). L1 is accepted where it is feasible (CLT).
11. Translation is forbidden (ALM). Translation may be used (CLT).
12. Reading and writing are differed (ALM). Reading and writing start from the first day (CLT).
13. Students learn L2 through overt teaching of patterns (ALM). Students learn L2 through communication process (CLT).
14. Linguistic competence is the goal (ALM). Communicative competence is the goal (CLT).
15. Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized (ALM). Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology (CLT).
16. The sequence of units is determined by principle of linguistic complexity (ALM). The sequence is determined by consideration of content, function, and meaning (CLT).
17. The teacher controls the learner from doing any conflict (ALM). The teacher helps learners to motivate them to work with the language (CLT).
18. Errors must be presented (ALM). Language is created through trial and errors (CLT).
19. Accuracy is the primary goal (ALM). Fluency is the primary goal (CLT).
20. Students interact with the language system (ALM). Dtudents interact with other people (CLT).
21. The teacher specifies the language that students must use (ALM). The teacher cannot know what language the students will use (CLT).
22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language (ALM). The intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated (CLT).

Cognitive Learning Theories

A. Background

As a reaction to Audio Lingual Method, Chomsky criticized the structural theory (1957). Then, in 1965 he was against the theory of language acquisution through driling. He believed that learning a language was not a  habit formation but a creative process, a rational and cognitive, not only a response for a stimulus.

According to Chomsky, students must be consciously faacilitated with grammatical rules. By using conscious understanding about the rules, the students will be able to produce a sentence pattern.

Cognitive Language theory is based on the linguistic transformational theory of Gestalt Psychology. This theory believes that learning a language is an internal process, mental activity of one individual. The students must be given opportunity to be active at using their mental abilities to achieve communicative language skills. The teacher should motivate the students to communicate.

B. Principles

• The frequency of contrast is more important than repetition.
• The more meaningful the materials are, the easier they will be apprehended.
• The material presented with visual aids will be easier to be studied.
• The full attention and concentration will ease the learning process.
• The learning process begins from competence to performance.
• The teaching learning process must be meaningful.

The language system is learned as a functional system that can be used in a communicative context.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

• Start the lesson with what the students know.
• Help the students relate their knowledge to the new material.
• Avoid an unmeaningful lesson.
• Use graphic and schematic way to explain relation.
• Practice the written and spoken language by using aids.
• Choose the most appropriate situation.
• Apply a deductive procedure.
• Differentiete the student's background knowledge and his potency.
• Stress the use of functional grammatical patterns.
• Give opportunity to the students to be active.

D. Characteristics of a Cognitive Class

• Class procedure is stressed on comprehension and communicative competence.
• Group work and individual learning are developed.
• Much attention must be payed to vocabulary and less to pronunciation.
• Teacher is the facilitator of leaning.
• Mistakes are viewed as unavoidable products.
• Ideal objectives are fluency in using the language
• Students are required to use the language after comprehending basic structures.
• Use of native language and translation is allowed.

E. Audio Lingual Method (ALM) and Cognitive Learning Theories (CLT)

• Language is considered a collection of habits (ALM). Language is considered a highly integrated system of rules (CLT).
• Learning is basically a mechanical process of habit formation (ALM). Learning is basically the comprehension of the rules of language (CLT).
• Audio Lingual Method aims at performance and habit formation (ALM). Cognitive Learning Theories aims at the development of linguistic competence (CLT).
• Both comprehension and production depend on different sets of habits (ALM). The ultimate product of Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is on inernalized systems of rules which underline comprehension production (CLT).
• Imitation and memorization are necessaary elements for habit formation (ALM). Imitation and memorization are not synonymous with comprehension (CLT).
• Students should be engaged with practices most of the time (ALM). Practices can be done after discovering patterns (CLT).
• Drills should be practiced by various techniques until a control is achieved (ALM). The most important purpose of drilling is to acquint the students with the rules of language (CLT).
• Foreign language habits are formed most effectively by giving the right response (ALM). Student's mistakes are considered a necessary and natural phenomenon (CLT).
• Mistakes should be corrected directly (ALM). Correction is unnecessary if the student has conveyed the meaning (CLT).
• The sentences that the students use should be grammatical from the very begining (ALM). Semi grammatical sentences are accepted as a normal stage (CLT).
• Language is something you understand before reading and writing (ALM). Spoken and written language is a distinct representation of the same basic language system (CLT).
• The order of presentation and acquisition understanding, speaking, reading, and writing (ALM). Any of the four skills can be given predominance according to the aims (CLT).
• Grammar rules are summaries of behavior extrapolated inductively from language data and presented only after the students have acquired the linguistic behavior (ALM). Grammar is the underlying representation of the surface structure strings. The foreign language process is geared towards the acquisition of the rules (CLT).
• Meaning can be given only after the students have gained a complete and automatic control over the grammatical patterns (ALM). Meaning should never be subordinated to other considerations. Students should be able to attach meaning to the words and forms he is saying (CLT).
• Level of manipulation and of language elements that occur in fixed relationship should be the main concern of the teacher (ALM). Level of manipulation and of expression go together, the latter being the instification for the teaching of a second language (CLT).
• Language habits are not different in origin as character from any other sets of habits (ALM). Language Acquisition Devices is highly specific to language learning. It does not have any formal resemblance to any other aspects of human functioning (CLT).
• Children are molded by regularities and contingencies of their environments (ALM). Process of language learning is mainy determined by forces inside the child that he brings with him Language Acquisition Device (CLT).

Community Language Learning (CLL)

A. Background

CLL, which was developed by Charles A. Curran, represents the us of counseling learning theory to teach languages. The firs experiments were in French, German, Italian, and Spanish. CLL derives its primacy insights from Rogerian counseling. In counseling, one person gives advice, assistance, and support to another who has a problem. The reference of the CLL is "Counseling-Learning in second Language" written by Curran.

Community Language Learning is linked with Language alternations where a message/lesson is presented first in the native tongue by the students and then in the target language by the councelor and the students.

B. Approach

1. Theory of Language

The recent writing of CLL proponents deals with an alternative theory of language , which is referred to as Language as Social Process.

The social-process view of language is elaborated in terms  of six qualities or processes (Curran, 1972).

• the whole-person process
• the educational process
• the interpersonal process
• the developmental process
•  the communicative process
• the cultural process

CLL interactions are of two distinct and fundamental kinds:

•  Learner-learner interaction: which is held to change in the direction of increasing intimacy and trust.
• Learner-knower interaction: which is held to change in its very nature from dependence to independence.

2. Theory of Learning-Basic Principle of CLL:

Curran (1972) concludes that the techniques of counseling can be applied in learning and teaching a language. The main task of the counselor is to reduce the learner’s insecurity, threat and anxiety. Curran discuss “consensual validation” in which mutual warmth, understanding and a positive evaluation of the other person’s worth develops between the councelor and the learner.

A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful learning is included under the acronym, SARD:

• S stands for Security.

Unless the students fell secure, they will not find it easy to enter a successful learning experience.

• A stands for Attention and Aggression

The variety in the choice of learner task will increase attention and promote learning. Aggression applies the way in which a child seeks an opportunity to show his strength by taking over and demonstrating what has been learned.

• R stands for Retention and Reflection.

If the whole person is involved in the learning process, retention is internalized and becomes a part of the learner’s new personal in the L2. Reflection is a consciously identified period of silence within the framework of the lesson for the students.

• D denotes Discrimination.

When the learners have retained a body of materials, they are ready to sort out the materials and see how one thing relates to another.

3. Stage of Mastery

Curran divides the mastery stage into five stages:

• Embryonic Stage

At the stage, the learners are dependent 100% on their counselor. The counselor has o reduce the student’s anxiety and give the opportunity to the learner to reflect himself in using the language.

• Self-Assertion Stage

At this stage, there is a beginning period of courage to make some attempt to speak in the L2. The students will give spirit or modification to each other.

• Birth Stage

At this stage, the learners reduce the use of L1. During this stage there can happen turning point negative or positive. The positive aspect can be seen if the learners have the sense of psychological belongings and sharing with the counselor and the other students. The negative aspect can also happen because the learner feels he is already able to use the language and avoids correction, though he does not master the language yet. The counselor should prevent this negative aspect.

• Reversal Stage

There is mutual understanding between the counselor and the clients and between one client with the other clients. At this stage the client is more active.

• Independent Stage

At this stage, the client has mastered all materials. He enlarges his language and learns the socio-cultural aspect of the native speaker.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

• One class consists of 6-12 students who sit in a circle.
• The teacher stands outside the circle.
• A student pronounces a message in L1 loudly. 
• The teacher whispers the message in L2.
• The student repeats the L2 message to his friends loudly.
• This process is done repeatedly and recorded.
• At the end of the class, this record is played again and transcribed.

D. Designs

•  Objective

Explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in the literature on CLL. The assumption is that through the method, the teacher can successfully transfer the knowledge.

• Syllabus

CLL is most often used in the teaching of oral proficiency. It does not have a conventional language syllabus. The syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner’s expressed communicative intentions and the councelor’s reformulation of these into suitable L2 utterances.

• Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

Community Language Learning combines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.

The activities include:

a.       Translation : ALearner’s message is trans ferred into L2 by the councelor and the student repeats the councelor’s translation.

b.      Group work: Group tasks vary such as having a discussion, a conversation and preparing a summary or a story.

c.       RecordingO: Students record conversation in the L2.

d.      Trancription: Studens transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded.

e.       Analysis: Students analyze and study the transcription of the target language.

f.       Reflection and observation: Learners reflect and report their experiences.

g.      Listening: Students listen to a monologue by the councelor.

h.      Free conversation: Students engage in free conversations with the councelor or with other students.

•  Learner Roles

In CLL, Learners become members of a community. They are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to provide meanings, repeat target utterances, support fellow members of the community, and even become a counselor to the other learners.

• Teacher Roles

The teacher’s function derives from the function of the counselor. His role is to respond calmly and non-judgmentally and to help clients to understand their problems better. He is responsible for providing a save environment.

• Results

It was claimed that the client could master the 100% materials during 120 hours by using the CLL method.

E. Conclusion

CLL places unusual demands on language teachers. They must be familiar with and sympathetic to the role of counselors.

They must be highly proficient and sensitive to nuance in both L1 and L2. They must resist the pressure “to teach” in the traditional senses. They must be relatively non-directive and be prepared to accept the aggression of the learners. They must attempt to learn these new roles and skills with much specific guidance from CLL texts.

Critics of CLL question the appropriateness of the counseling metaphor upon which it is predicted, while the supporters of CLL emphasize the benefits of the method that centers on the learners and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.