Community Language Learning (CLL)

A. Background

CLL, which was developed by Charles A. Curran, represents the us of counseling learning theory to teach languages. The firs experiments were in French, German, Italian, and Spanish. CLL derives its primacy insights from Rogerian counseling. In counseling, one person gives advice, assistance, and support to another who has a problem. The reference of the CLL is "Counseling-Learning in second Language" written by Curran.

Community Language Learning is linked with Language alternations where a message/lesson is presented first in the native tongue by the students and then in the target language by the councelor and the students.

B. Approach

1. Theory of Language

The recent writing of CLL proponents deals with an alternative theory of language , which is referred to as Language as Social Process.

The social-process view of language is elaborated in terms  of six qualities or processes (Curran, 1972).

• the whole-person process
• the educational process
• the interpersonal process
• the developmental process
•  the communicative process
• the cultural process

CLL interactions are of two distinct and fundamental kinds:

•  Learner-learner interaction: which is held to change in the direction of increasing intimacy and trust.
• Learner-knower interaction: which is held to change in its very nature from dependence to independence.

2. Theory of Learning-Basic Principle of CLL:

Curran (1972) concludes that the techniques of counseling can be applied in learning and teaching a language. The main task of the counselor is to reduce the learner’s insecurity, threat and anxiety. Curran discuss “consensual validation” in which mutual warmth, understanding and a positive evaluation of the other person’s worth develops between the councelor and the learner.

A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful learning is included under the acronym, SARD:

• S stands for Security.

Unless the students fell secure, they will not find it easy to enter a successful learning experience.

• A stands for Attention and Aggression

The variety in the choice of learner task will increase attention and promote learning. Aggression applies the way in which a child seeks an opportunity to show his strength by taking over and demonstrating what has been learned.

• R stands for Retention and Reflection.

If the whole person is involved in the learning process, retention is internalized and becomes a part of the learner’s new personal in the L2. Reflection is a consciously identified period of silence within the framework of the lesson for the students.

• D denotes Discrimination.

When the learners have retained a body of materials, they are ready to sort out the materials and see how one thing relates to another.

3. Stage of Mastery

Curran divides the mastery stage into five stages:

• Embryonic Stage

At the stage, the learners are dependent 100% on their counselor. The counselor has o reduce the student’s anxiety and give the opportunity to the learner to reflect himself in using the language.

• Self-Assertion Stage

At this stage, there is a beginning period of courage to make some attempt to speak in the L2. The students will give spirit or modification to each other.

• Birth Stage

At this stage, the learners reduce the use of L1. During this stage there can happen turning point negative or positive. The positive aspect can be seen if the learners have the sense of psychological belongings and sharing with the counselor and the other students. The negative aspect can also happen because the learner feels he is already able to use the language and avoids correction, though he does not master the language yet. The counselor should prevent this negative aspect.

• Reversal Stage

There is mutual understanding between the counselor and the clients and between one client with the other clients. At this stage the client is more active.

• Independent Stage

At this stage, the client has mastered all materials. He enlarges his language and learns the socio-cultural aspect of the native speaker.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

• One class consists of 6-12 students who sit in a circle.
• The teacher stands outside the circle.
• A student pronounces a message in L1 loudly. 
• The teacher whispers the message in L2.
• The student repeats the L2 message to his friends loudly.
• This process is done repeatedly and recorded.
• At the end of the class, this record is played again and transcribed.

D. Designs

•  Objective

Explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in the literature on CLL. The assumption is that through the method, the teacher can successfully transfer the knowledge.

• Syllabus

CLL is most often used in the teaching of oral proficiency. It does not have a conventional language syllabus. The syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner’s expressed communicative intentions and the councelor’s reformulation of these into suitable L2 utterances.

• Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

Community Language Learning combines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.

The activities include:

a.       Translation : ALearner’s message is trans ferred into L2 by the councelor and the student repeats the councelor’s translation.

b.      Group work: Group tasks vary such as having a discussion, a conversation and preparing a summary or a story.

c.       RecordingO: Students record conversation in the L2.

d.      Trancription: Studens transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded.

e.       Analysis: Students analyze and study the transcription of the target language.

f.       Reflection and observation: Learners reflect and report their experiences.

g.      Listening: Students listen to a monologue by the councelor.

h.      Free conversation: Students engage in free conversations with the councelor or with other students.

•  Learner Roles

In CLL, Learners become members of a community. They are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to provide meanings, repeat target utterances, support fellow members of the community, and even become a counselor to the other learners.

• Teacher Roles

The teacher’s function derives from the function of the counselor. His role is to respond calmly and non-judgmentally and to help clients to understand their problems better. He is responsible for providing a save environment.

• Results

It was claimed that the client could master the 100% materials during 120 hours by using the CLL method.

E. Conclusion

CLL places unusual demands on language teachers. They must be familiar with and sympathetic to the role of counselors.

They must be highly proficient and sensitive to nuance in both L1 and L2. They must resist the pressure “to teach” in the traditional senses. They must be relatively non-directive and be prepared to accept the aggression of the learners. They must attempt to learn these new roles and skills with much specific guidance from CLL texts.

Critics of CLL question the appropriateness of the counseling metaphor upon which it is predicted, while the supporters of CLL emphasize the benefits of the method that centers on the learners and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.

Silent Way (SW)

A.    Background

Silent Way is a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno in 1954. The first book containing this method is Teaching Foreign Language in Schools: The Silent Way “which was revised into” The Common Sense of Teaching a Foreign language”, thirteen years later. Gateggno is famous for his Cuisenaire rods and his series of words in color.

The Silent Way represents Gattegno’s venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It uses color charts and colored Cuisenaire rods which were developed first by George Cuisenaire.

B.     Hypotheses

The learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno’s work are:

• Learning is facilitated if the learners discover or create.
• Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.
• Learning is facilitated by problem solving.

There are two traditions of teaching:

• Expository mode. In expository mode, the  teacher is an expository and the learners are listeners.
• Hypothetical mode. In this mode, the teacher and the students are in a more cooperative position.

Silent Way belongs to the hypothetical mode which views learning as a problem solving, creative discovering activity. There are four benefits of discovery learning:

•  The increase in intellectual potency.
•  The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards.
• The learning of heuristic by discovering.
• The aid to conserving memory.

The rods and the colored charts of pronunciation provide physical foci for student’s learning and create memorable images to facilitate his/her recall. Silent Way is also related to a set of premises calied “problem solving approaches to learning”. It is expected to become independent, autonomous and responsible. In other words, a good problem solver in the language.

C.     Principles

• The first language acquisition is different from the second language acquisition.
• The child’s mind equips itself more and more edequately by its own working, trial and error and deliberate experimentation by suspending judgments and revising conclusions.
•   The student must be given the opportunity to listen to the target language melody.
•  Language acquisition must be done by the student himself.
• The teacher should be silent more, except when he exposits the new materials.
• Method used is artificial and highly controlled.
• Materials are presented with verbal media, but instruction and correction are not done orally.
• Vocabulary items are limited.
• The teacher corrects the student’s mistakes if the other students cannot correct them.

The media used are rods, a Fidel Charts and a Wall chart. Each of them has several advantages. The benefits of rods are:

• The L1 use can be avoided.
• The simple linguistic from can be created.
• The student’s intellectual potency can be increased.
• The teacher pays much attention to the student’s utterances.

 The fiddle charts consists of vowels and consonants and the wall chart consists of functional words.

D.    Approach

• Theory of Language

Silent Way takes a structural approach to the organization of language to be taught. Language is seen as groups of sounds arbitrary associated with specific meanings and organized into sentence or strings of meaningful units by grammar rules. Vocabulary as a central dimension of language learning has several classes:

1. Semi luxury vocabulary consists of common expressions in daily life.
2. Luxury vocabulary communicates more specialized ideas.
3. Functional vocabulary provides a key to comprehending the “spirit” of the language.

• Theory of Learning

Successful learning involves commitments of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and active trials. Gattegno’s emphasis on the primacy of over teaching places on the self of the learner, on the learner’s priorities and commitments. The self consists of two systems:

1. The learning system which is activated by way of intelligent awareness.
2. The retaining system which allows the students to remember and recall the linguistic elements and their organizing principles which makes the linguistic communication possible.

Silence is a key to triggering awareness and the preferred path to retention. Silent Way learners acquire “inner criteria” which play a central role in one’s education. These inner criteria allow learners to monitor and selfcorrect their own production. Silent way learning claims to consolidate the human dimensions of being and to include variety and individuality as essential factors for an acceptance of other as contributors to one’s own life.

E.     Usual Classroom Techniques

On the first day the teacher takes a box of colored rods to the class. He picks a red rod which is short while saying “rod”. Then he picks a longer green rod and says “rod”. Later, he picks a longer blue rod and says “rod” is a piece of wood.

After some examples, the teacher signs the students to imitate, then the students are asked to say the word individually. Adjective can also be taught in the some way. During the first lesson, there are only there words taught: take, give and put.

F.      Designs

• Objective

The general objective of Silent Way is to give beginning level students oral and aural facilities in the basic elements of the target language. The general goal is near native fluency in the target language: correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language are emphasized. An intermediate objective is to provide learners with a basic knowledge of grammar rules.

• Syllabus

Silent Way adopts a basically structural syllabus with lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabularies.There is no general Silent Way syllabus, but language items are introduced according to their grammatical complexity.Vocabulary is selected according to the degree to which it can be manipulated within a given structure and its productivity.

• Types of learning and teaching Activities

Learning tasks activities have the function of encouraging the students and shaping their oral responses without a direct oral instruction from the teacher. The teacher models a word, phrase, or sentence and then elicits the leaner’s responses. Then, the learners create their own utterances. The teacher’s modeling is minimal and much activity may be teacher directed.

• Learner Roles

Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility. Independent learners are those who are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use the knowledge of their own language to open up something in a new language. The autonomous learner chooses proper expressions in a given set of circumstances.Responsible learners know that they have free will to choose among any sets of linguistic choices. It is said to be the evidence of responsibility.

Learners have to play various roles. At times one is an in dependent individual, at other times a group member. Also, a learner must be a teacher, a student, a part of a support system, a problem solver and self evaluator.

• Teacher Roles

The Silent Way teacher’s tasks are:

1. To teach. Teaching means the presentation of typically using nonverbal clues to get across meanings.
2. To test. Testing means the elicitation and shaping of the student’s production silently.
3. To get out of the way. The teacher silently monitors learner’s interaction with each other and may leave the room while learners struggle with their new linguistic tools.

Teachers are responsible for designing teaching sequences, creating individual lesson elements, and creating an environment that encourages the student risk taking and that facilitates learning.

• Roles of Instructional Materials

The materials consist mainly of asset of colored rods, color coded pronunciation and vocabulary charts designed for manipulation in promoting the language learning by direct associations.

G.    Result

Gattegno claimed that in a year the students could master the language which was able to be taught four years by using other methods.

Suggestopedia

A. Background

Suggestopedia is a method developed by Georgi Lozanov. It can be called suggestopedy or suggestopedagogy. The experiment of this method was held in Bulgaria (1975). The main reference of this method is a lozanov's book : Suggestology and Oulines of Suggestopedy, 1983.
The most conspicuous characteristics of suggestopedia are the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behavior of the teacher. Lozanov has borrowed and modified the techniques for altering states of consciousness and concentration and the use of rhythmic breathing. There are three functions of using music in the method:

• to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations.

• to bring about the increased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance.

• to use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order.

B. Approach

• Theory of Language

Lozanov does not articulate a theory of language. The emphasis on memorization of vocabulary pair suggests a view of language in which stess is put on Lexis and lexical translation.
The suggestopedic course direct the students to act of communication. Lozanov recommends home study of recordings of "whole meaningful text" that are, above all, interesting. The text should be light hearted stories with emotional content.

• Theory of Learning

Suggestopedia  derived from suggestology: a science concerned with the systematic study of the nonrational and/or nonconcious influences. The heart suggestopedia is suggestion, which involves loading the memory banks with desired and facilitating memories. Desuggestions, on the other hand, involves unloading the memory banks, or reserves, of unwanted or blocking memories.
The are some basic theoretical components through which desuggestion and suggestion operate:

1. Authority. People remember best and are most influenced by the information coming from an authority source.
2. Infantilization. Authority is also use to suggest a teacher student relation like that of parent to child.
3. Double-planednees. The learner learns not only from the effect of direct instruction, but also from the environment in which the instruction takes place.
4. Intonation, rhythm, and correct pseudo-passiveness. Varying the tone and the rhythm of presented materials helps both to avoid boredom and to dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to the linguistic materials.

Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical background, called Baroque. The rate of presentation of materials to be learned within the rhythmic pattern is keyed to the rhythm.

C. Designs

• Objective

Suggestopedia aims at delivering advanced conversational proficiency quickly. The main aim of teaching is not memorization, but the understanding and creative solution of problems. However, memorization of vocabulary pairs is an important goal of the suggestopedic method.

• Syllabus

A suggestopedia course lasts three months and consists of ten units of study. Classes are held four hours a day, six days a week during three months with 1200 words fcr the course. The central focus of each unit is a dialogue. The dialogue is graded by lexis and grammar. The study unit is organized around three days:

1. On day one (half a day), the teacher discusses the general content. The learners receive the printed dialogue with a native language translation. The dialogue is read a second and third time.
2. Days two end three are spent in primary and secondary elaboration of the text. Primary elaborations consist of imitation, question and answer, reading and so on of the dialogue and of working with the new vocabulary items. The secondary elaboration involves encouraging students to make new combinations and productions based on dialogues.

The whole course also has pattern of presentation and performance. On the firs day, a test is given to check the level of student's knowledge ond to divide students into groups. Then, the teacher briefs the students on the course and explains the attitude they should take toward it.
It the middle of the course, students are encouraged to practice the target language in a sitting provided. The last day of the course is devoted to a performance in which every student participles.

• Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

The type of activities is listening activities, which concern the text. The students first look at and discuss a new text with the teacher. In the second reading, students relax comfortably in reclining chairs and listen to the teacher reading the text. During the third reading, materials is acted out by instructor in a dramatic way over a background of the special musical form.

• Learner Roles

Students volunteer for a suggestopedia course, then, they are expected to be committed to the class and its activities. the mental state of the learner is critical to success: students are expected to tolerate and encourage their own infantilization.

• Teacher Roles

The primary role of the teacher is:
a. to create situations in which the learner is most suggestible.
b. to present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by the learner.
Lozanov lists several expected teacher behaviors:

1. Show absolute confidence in the method.
2. Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.
3. Organize properly and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process.
4. Maintain a solemn attitude toward the season.
5. Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers.
6. Stress global rather than analytical attitudes toward materials.
7. Maintain a modest enthusiasm.

• Roles of instructional Materials

Materials consist of direct support materials, primarily text and tape, and indirect support materials, including the appearance of the classroom, the furniture and the music. The textbook should have emotional force, literary quality and interesting characters.

Learning environment plays such a central role in suggestopedia that the important elements of the environment  need to be enumerated.

D. Usual Classroom Techniques

The four-hour language class has three distinct part.

• Oral review section.

• Presentation and discussion of new materials.

• Seance or concert session.

At the beginning of the concert session, all conversation stops for a minute  or two, and the teacher listens to the music coming from the tape recorder. Then, he begins to read or recite the new text. The students follow the text in their textbooks.

Between the first and the second part of the concert, there are several minutes of solemn silence.

Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read the text.

Now, the students close their textbooks and listen to the teacher's reading. They are not told to do homework except for reading it curiously before going to bed and before getting up.

E. Results

The method has  shown better results in the experimental classes than that in the usual classes. Word retention for German, French, English, and Italian is 93.16% , the average (Lozanov, 1982 : 209). Word retention after three years is still perfect  (Lozanov, 1982 : 125)

Lozanov's follower claimes that the results of the suggestopedia method are better than those of the anthers. Bordon and Schuster (in Bancfroft, 1978) claims that the results is 2,5. Suggestopedia  teacher in lowa claims that the results is 3 times (Bancroft, 1978 : 169). Strander and Schruder (in Bancroft, 1978 : 168) claimes that the result is 50 times better than that of the other method.

Audio Lingual Method(ALM)

A. Background

As a reaction to Reading Method, The Audio Lingual Method (The Aural-oral Approach) appeared for the need of teaching a foreign language, especially the spoken one in a short time during World War 2 (Freeman, 1985). It was famous at the same time with the popularity of Verbal Behavior, which was developed by B.F. Skinner. This method was related to the linguists 'view such as Bloom field and Fries which emphasized the structuralism. They believed that learning a language was making patterns into automatic habits. One way to form their habits was by using drills. The first application of ALM was made in the Armed Services Training Program Language Courses.

The method is based on the idea that the student acquires a foreign language more easily if it is presented in spoken form first (Brooks, 1984).

ALM aims at developing listening and speaking skills first, as the foundation on which to build the skills of reading and writing.

B. Principles

1. Items must be presented in spoken form before the written form.
2. The need for practicing the language patterns must be fulfilled gradually in cumulative graded steps.
3. Contrastive analysis must be made to find similarities and differences as the basis of teaching preparation.
4. Translation must not be used.
5. Care must be taken in giving pronunciation drills and pattern practices.
6. The learners mus attempt to make responses in situations, which stimulate real-life communication situations.
7. The bases of ALM are as the following:

Brooks (1964) claims the following bases of ALM:

• Language is speech, not writing.
• A language is a set of habits.
• Teach the language, not about the language.
• A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks he ought to say.
• Language are different.

C. Approach

• Theory of Language.

The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism is derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s, known as structural linguistics which views language as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning.

The term 'structural' refers to these characteristics:

1. Elements in a language are thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed way.
2. Language samples can be exhaustively described at any structural level of description.
3. Linguistic levels are thought of as system within systems.
4. An important tenet of structural linguistics is that the primary medium of language is oral.

• Theory of Learning

According to the behaviorists, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learners the behavior as the verbal behavior, the stimulus as what is thought, the response as the laerner's action, and the reinforcement as the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher.


D. Designs

Audiolingualist demanded a complete reorientation of the foreign language curriculum. They advocated a return to speech base instruction with the primary objectives of oral proficiency and the study of grammar.

• Objectives

Brook (1964) distinguishes two objectives of an audiolingualism program:

1. Short - range objectives include training listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols and ability to produce these symbols in writing.
2. Long - range objectives must be language as the native speakers use it.

• Syllabus

The starting point of ALM is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the keys of phonology, morphology and syntax of the language. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

• Types of learning and teaching activities

Dialogues and drills from the basic of the ALM classroom practices. Specific grammatical patterns in the dialogues become the focus of drills and practices. The use of drills and pattern practices is a distinctive feature of ALM.

• Learning roles

A learner plays a creative role by responding to stimuli and has little control over the content, peace, or style of learning.

• Teacher roles

The teacher's role is central and active. He must keep the learners attentive by varying drills and task and by choosing relevant situations.

• Role of instructional materials.

Instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. The teacher will have access to a teacher's book tahat contains the structured sequence of lessons: dialogues, drills and other practices. Language laboratory is essential.


E. Usual Classroom Techniques

The process of teaching involves an extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is immediate and accurate speech. As much as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction. Classes of ten are optimal.

According to Brook (1964: 142), the procedures in using ALM are:

1. The modeling of learning by the teacher.
2. The subordination of the mother tongue to the L2.
3. The training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
4. The learning of structure through patterns practices.
5. The gradual substitution of graphic symbols.
6. The summarizing of the main principles of structure.
7. The shortening of time span between a performance and the pronunciation of its rightness or wrongness.
8. The minimizing of vocabulary until common structures have been learned.
9. The study of vocabulary only in context.
10. The sustained practice in the use of language only in the molecular  form of speakers hearer-situation.
11. The practice in translation only as a literary exercise at advanced level.

F. Contrastive Analysis (CA)

• Background

Exponents of ALM claims that a contrastive analysis (CA) between the L1 and the L2 is needed  for the basic of the preparation of teaching materials and test.

• Assumptions

Sridhar (1980) has the following assumptions of the Contrastive Analysis:

1. The major cause of problems and errors in foreign language learning is interference from L1.
2. The learning difficulties are due to the differences between L1 and L2.
3. The greater differences will cause more serious problems.
4. The results of the comparisons between L1 and L2 are needed for the prediction of difficulties.
5. The students have to learn the results of contrastive analysis.

• Analyses of Contrasting L1 and L2

a. The Phonology, morphology, and syntax of both L1 and L2 are analyzed by using the mechanical procedures of descriptive linguistics.
b. The results of the two analyses are two sets of linguistic inventors: each of which consists of:

1. A list of phonemes, allophones, and rules of distribution, and supra-segmental features and intonation.
2. A list of word classes, affixes, and morphological rules.
3. A list of the basic sentence patterns.

• The two sets of inventory are compared or contrasted.
• The result of the comparison will be a list of similarities and a list of differences.
• From the differences, trouble spots can be predicted.

G. Error Analysis (EA)

• History

Greater differences of L1 and L2 do not necessarily cause more serious problems. The source of problems and errors can be mislearning, misunderstanding and poor grading of materials.

Some language teachers have found that foreign students from many native language backgrounds have many problems in common. So, instead of using contrastive analysis, it is more realistic to analyze the errors made by the students. From such analyses, patterns of errors can be established and the knowledge about it can be used to solve the students problems.

• Principles

In error analysis, Sridhar (1980) claims that the following problems should be focused:

1. Overgeneralization. A generalization is a process in which someone uses previously available strategies in new situations. Over generalization is a process of using generalization without being careful about exception.
2. Performance Errors. The problem of performance happens if the student does not pronounce letter (s) clearly enough to hear.
3. Markers of transitional competence. The teacher should not make harsh comments on student's errors because it will disappear in a few days. the student's transitional competence improves in time. It will encourage a teacher to change his attitude toward him/her.

• Concluding Remarks

Errors made by students can be classified into:

1. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by interference from L1.
2. Interlanguage errors, which are caused by the problems inherent within the target language.
3. Developmental errors, which are caused by the process of development in learning.

Overgeneralization and false hypothesis are indications of developmental errors.

Reading Method

A. Background

As a reaction to Direct Method after the publication in 1929 0f the Colemen report as part of Modern Foreign Language Study in the USA, Reading Method was developed because the majority of American students studied a foreign language for a period of two years only. The only objective, which could be attainable, was the development of reading ability.

The main aim of the Reading Method is the ability of reading. To abtain the aim, the students are trained to read L2 with the direct apprehension of meaning. They are trained in correct pronunciation, comprehension of uncomplicated spoken language, and the use of simple speech patterns. Writing is limited to exercises, which will help the students remember vocabulary and structures essentially geared to the needs of the readers.

B. Principles

1. Students are trained to read the foreign language with the direct apprehension of its meaning.
2. Correct pronunciation is emphasized.
3. Writing and grammar study are limited to the need of readers related to reading materials.
4. Students’ comprehension is tested by answering the questions on the content of the reading materials.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

1. Language study begins oral phase. The students are initiated into the sound system of the language.
2. After the introduction of reading, there continues to be on practice in association with the texts; this usually takes the for of reading aloud.
3. The main part of the course is then divided into intensive an extensive readings.

a. Intensive reading, under the teacher’s supervision, is more analytic and is the source of the materials for grammar study. The students are trained to infer the meaning of unknow words from the context.

b. For extensive reading, the students read many pages on connected discourse graded to their level of achievements.

Direct Method

A. Background

As a reaction to Grammar Translation Method, by the end of 19^th century, some advocates of active classroom methods had considerable influence on foreign language teachers. They believed that students learnt to understand a language by listening to it and that they learnt to speak by speaking it (Richards, 1986).

They tried to apply natural principles to language class by using intensive oral interaction in the target language. They believed  that the L2 could be taught without translation. According to them, a language could be best taught by using in the classroom. These oral and natural principles of language learning provided the foundation of Direct Method.

The ultimate aim of Direct Method is to develop the ability to think in the L2, whether conversing, reading, or writing. This new emphasis on the foreign language as the medium of instruction means that correct pronunciation becomes an important consideration.

C. Principles

Richards, (1986) stresses the following principles of Direct Method.

1. The learner must try to think directly in foreign language.
2. The foreign language must be constantly used without any allowance for the L1 use.
3. Classroom interaction is conducted exclusively in the L2.
4. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
5. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression.
6. Grammar is taught inductively.
7. New teaching points are introduced orally.
8. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects and pictures.
9. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
10. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.

C. Usual Classroom Techniques

1. The learner is drilled extensively in listening, imitating, and speaking.
2. Grammar is taught inductively through examples and demonstration.
3. Emphasis is on aural-oral proficiency.
4. Normal conversation is really encouraged by asking questions.

Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

A. Background

Grammar Translation Method (1840s to 1940s) is clearly rooted in the formal Latin and Greek. This method is based on the idea that the quickest way to learn a foreign language through the understanding of grammar and the use of the native language in explaining it. It was previously called the classical method. It was in fact first known in the United States as the Prussian Method (Sears in Richards and Rogers, 1986: 3-5)

B. Aims

Rivers (1986) states the following aims of GTM:

1. Inculcating an understanding of grammar or the language.
2. Training the students to write the language accurately.
3. Providing the students with a wide literary vocabulary.
4. Training the students to extract the meaning by translation.

C. Principles

1. GTM is a way of studying a language. The L1 is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the L2.
2. Reading and writing are the major focus.
3. Vocabulary based on reading is taught through a bilingual language word list, dictionary study and memorization.
4. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the L2.
5. Grammar is taught deductively.
6. The L1 is the medium of instruction.

D. Usual Classrom Techniques

1. A lesson usually starts with a grammar point.
2. A piece of reading follows the purpose of illustrating the grammar point.
3. Next, exercises on the grammar are given.
4. Translation exercises come after that.

Preface

LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD is a text that provides the readers with some ideas of language teaching based on structural and communicative approaches. The write can be used as a guide by the teachers, instructors, and students in the faculty of language education in Indonesia.

The writer's goal is to enable the language teachers, language instructors, language students to become better informed about background, principles, and usual classroom techniques of language teaching methods.

Therefore, it is hoped that they can better arrive at their judgments and decisions for teaching techniques in their language classrooms.